Newer
Older
\documentclass[letterpaper,12pt]{article}
\usepackage{ambarkutuk-paper}
\usepackage[letterpaper, margin=1in]{geometry}
\usepackage{layout}
\usepackage{appendix}
\usepackage{times}
\usepackage{ragged2e}
% \title{Information Theoretic Approach to Multi-sensor Perception Problems}
% \author[1]{Creed Jones}
% \author[1]{Paul Plassmann}
% \affil[1]{The Bradley Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering}
\author{}
\date{\vspace{-10ex}}
\input{etc/definitions}
\input{etc/glossaries}
\begin{document}
\justifying
% \maketitle
\begin{center}\large{\textbf{Un-Title: Very Cool Title}}\end{center}
% \begin{center}\large{\textbf{Information Theoretic Approach to Solve Gait Analysis Problem with Multi-Sensor Perception}}\end{center}
This document briefly presents a solution to indoor occupant localization problem with an unconventional (from perception viewpoint), unintrusive (from privacy perspective), and unconstrained (from mode of deployment aspect) approach~\cite{alajlouni2019new}.
The proposed solution does not require occupants to carry special devices, markers, or beacons; hence, it is a passive approach while the sensible area (field-of-view) cannot be occluded; however, it suffers from uncertainty and complexity of the governing phenomenon.
In this work, the structural vibration signal captured by floor-mounted uncertain accelerometers due to an occupant's footfall patterns is used to determine the whereabouts of an occupant in a room.
\noindent\textbf{\underline{Contributions}}: The original contributions of this study is as given below:
\vspace{-1ex}
\begin{itemize}
\item A measurement model that models different sensing uncertainties, \vspace{-2ex}
\item A framework that works out uncertainty bounds of vibro-localization techniques, \vspace{-2ex}
\item Employment of multi-sensing principles to achieve minimal localization uncertainty, \vspace{-2ex}
\item Multiple validation studies based on simulation and experimental data.
\end{itemize}
\vspace{-4ex}\subsubsection*{Method}\vspace{-1ex}
\input{fig_system}
The overall schematic of the proposed technique is shown in \Cref{fig:overview}.
Briefly, the proposed technique uses $m$ number of acccelerometer's vibro-measurements separately then combines the results with a Sensor Fusion algorithm to obtain the consensus of all the sensors's belief about the occupant location.
The main contribution of this study is creating a step localization framework $\vect{h}_i(\cdot)$ that provide a \gls{pdf} representing where the heel-strike location events $\vect{x}_i$ occured with the measurement of an imperfect sensor, i.e., it yields noisy and likely bias-drifted measurements $\vect{z}_i$.
% The proposed framework decomposes step localization problem into two smaller problems: estimation of the distance $d_i = g_d\left(\vect{z}_i; \vect{\beta}_d\right)$, and directionality $\theta_i = g_\theta\left(\vect{z}_i; \vect{\beta}_\theta\right)$ of the impact location to the sensor.
With the given representation, the location estimate $\vect{x}_i$ with its corresponding localization error $\vect{\chi}$ are given by when the occupant's true heel-strike location is $\vect{x}_t$:
\vect{x}_i = \vect{x}_t + \vect{\chi}_i = \vect{h}_i(\vect{z}_i; \vect{\beta})
\end{equation*}
where the vector of imperfect time-domain vibro-measurements of a single-axis accelerometer is given by $\vect{z}_i = \left(z_i[1], \ldots, z_i[n]\right)^\top \in \mathbb{R}^n$ between time steps $k = \{1, \ldots, n\}$ for all sensors $i = \{1, \ldots, m\}$.
% are modeled as the combination of the true vibro-measurement that the sensor is supposed to register, $z_t[k]$, and random effects of sensor imperfections, $\zeta[k]$.
% \begin{equation*}
% \vect{z} = \{z[k]:k = \{1,\ldots n\}\}, \qquad \text{where } z[k] = z_t[k] + \zeta[k], \text{ and }\zeta[k] \sim \N{\delta}{\sigma_{\zeta}}.
% \end{equation*}
% \vspace{-5ex}
The proposed localization technique yields a \gls{pdf} of location estimate $f_{\vect{X}_i}\left(\vect{x}_i \right)$ by using the \gls{pdf} of the vibro-measurements $\vect{z}_i$, which are straightforward to obtain and are unique to each individual sensor, and localization framework $h_i\left(\cdot\right)$.
The \gls{pdf} $f_{\vect{X}_i}\left(\vect{x} \right)$ inherently assigns a probability any arbitrary location vector $\vect{x}$ in the localization space, i.e. sensors' belief about the occupant location.
% The proposed method is able to derive the theoretical \gls{pdf} of location estimates
% $(\vect{x}_1, \ldots, \vect{x}_m)$
% Specifically, each sensor's likelihood function represents where the sensor ``thinks'' the occupant's foot landed.
By combining the \gls{pdf} of each sensor, the joint \gls{pdf} is obtained where the peak (mode) of the joint \gls{pdf} is finally determined as the location estimation.
In short, the generation of this joint \gls{pdf} is called ``Sensor Fusion'' in the literature where the importance of each sensor's \gls{pdf} is scaled according the information that the \gls{pdf} carries in the fusion algorithm.
% Due to stochastic nature of the problem, we employ a probabilistic approach such that the localization framework $\vect{h}(\cdot)$ yields to a likelihood function defined over the localization space.
% Specifically, each sensor's likelihood function represents where the sensor ``thinks'' the occupant's foot landed.
% By combining the likelihood function of each sensor, the joint likelihood function is obtained where the peak (mode) of the joint likelihood function is finally determined as the location estimation.
\begin{figure}[!t]
\centering
\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.45\textwidth}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{k_50.png}
\caption{}
\end{subfigure}
\hfill
\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.45\textwidth}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{example-image-a}
\end{subfigure}
\caption{\textbf{(a)}\textbf{(b)}}
\vspace{-2ex}\subsubsection*{Results}\vspace{-1ex}
The efficacy and validity of the proposed technique were assessed with a series of controlled experiments.
These experiments were held in Virginia Tech's own Goodwin Hall that is equipped with over 200 accelerometer embedded in its superstructure~\cite{alajlouni2020passive}.
In the experiments, the occupants were asked to walk along a 40 meters stretch of the south hallway measuring.
We limited our sensory-scope to closest eleven accelerometer placed under this hallway.
\Cref{fig:xy_mle2} demonstrates two types of results we obtain from the proposed framework: \Cref{fig:pdf} depicts a step location and its corresponding \gls{pdf} of each sensors' belief about the occupant location overlayed in the same figure; while \Cref{fig:joint_pdf} shows the result of the Sensor Fusion algorithm.
As can be seen in \Cref{fig:pdf}, each sensor indepedently generates a \gls{pdf} about the impact location. As can be seen in the figure, a significant inverse relationship between the sensor and the impact and the certainty of the \gls{pdf}.
In other words, the localization framework $\vect{h}_i(\cdot)$ becomes uncertain when the occupant moves away from the sensor.
It is important to note that the directionality component in the localization framework $\vect{h}_i(\cdot)$ is modeled with lack-of-information, i.e. Uniform Distribution in the range $(0, 2\pi)$.
Therefore, the sensors yield radially symmetric \gls{pdf}s around their locations.
% \begin{figure}[!h]
% \centering
% \begin{subfigure}[b]{0.3\textwidth}
% \centering
% \includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{example-image-a}
% \caption{}
% % \label{fig:three sin x}
% \end{subfigure}
% \hfill
% \begin{subfigure}[b]{0.3\textwidth}
% \centering
% \includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{example-image-b}
% \caption{}
% % \label{fig:five over x}
% \end{subfigure}
% \caption{
% \textbf{(a)}
% \textbf{(b)}
% }
% \label{fig:xy_mle3}
% \end{figure}
% \Cref{fig:xy_mle3} demonstrates the error statistics of the estimated heel-strike locations as a function of the location the heel-strike locations.
% The left and center plot shows these error by only using the structural vibration and visual signal only.
% As can been seen from the left and center plots, the error characteristics of these sensing modalities are significantly different.
% When the result of these sensors are fused, the right plot is obtained where the SF algorithm greatly benefits from structural vibration and visual signals.
\vspace{-2ex}\subsubsection*{Conclusions and Future Work}\vspace{-1ex}
\lipsum[1]
% In this document, two different research studies conducted in VTSIL that involve the SF discipline were presented.
% Overall, SF techniques are robust to many erroneous factors while capturing the sensor uncertainties to adaptively tune its internal parameters.
% We believe that SF has the potential to provide crucial information to the solutions to complex problems such as structural health monitoring of complex structures, vibration control, non-field-of-view perception, etc.
\clearpage
\bibliographystyle{elsarticle-num-names}
\bibliography{etc/cas-refs}
% \section*{Appendix}
% \subsection*{Page Layout}
% \centering
% \layout
\end{document}